Abstract
Evidence shows that those who practice Buddhism have positive mental health. Such research, however, is nearly non-existent in Vietnam, a country with a long Buddhist tradition. What is the relationship between non-attachment and mental health (stress, anxiety, and depression) in Buddhists, and what is the most influential variable that affects the non-attachment and mental health of Buddhists? The purposes of this study are (1) to examine the relationship between non-attachment in Buddhism and several mental health components (stress, anxiety and depression), and (2) to explore, within the demographic and religious variables, the most influential variable that affects the non-attachment and mental health of Buddhists. The participants were 472 Buddhists (427 laypersons, 45 monks; 339 women and 130 men) from four
Keywords: Non-attachmentmental healthBuddhismVietnamese Buddhists
Introduction
Vietnam has a long Buddhist tradition and two of its Dynasties, the Ly and the Tran, even honoured Buddhism as the religion of the country. Today, although there are different religions in the country, Buddhism remains the religion with the highest number of followers. All Vietnamese people to some extent hold beliefs that are deeply rooted in Buddhist
In the context of increases in the factors that negatively affect mental health, as mentioned above, the practice of Buddhism has been expanding over the last decade in Vietnam, as well as throughout the world. Evidence shows that those who practice Buddhism have positive mental health. According to the Mental Health Foundation, one in four British adults practices meditation, and 50% would be interested in learning to meditate as a means of coping with stress and improving their health (Shonin, Gordon, & Griffiths, 2014). Research shows that Buddhist teachings and Buddhist practice help people regulate their emotions (Desbordes et al., 2012; Van Gordon, Shonin, Sumich, Sundin, & Griffiths, 2013), reduce symptoms of depression (Burns, Lee, & Brown, 2011) and stress (Dane, 2000; Sooksawat, Janwantanakul, Tencomnao, & Pensri, 2013), feel more lively (Bitner, Hillman, Victor, & Walsh, 2003), and improve their personal relationships. Research conducted by Wang, Wong, and Yeh (2016) with 262 Taiwanese students showed that non-attachment (release from mental fixations; Sahdra, Shaver, & Brown, 2010) had significant positive correlations with confidence, life satisfaction, positive emotions, peaceful mentality, and happiness, and displayed significant negative correlations with negative emotions and psychological stress. Moreover, non-attachment is strongly negatively correlated with negative emotions, psychological stress, anxiety, and depression. A combination of high non-attachment and high dialectical coping is correlated with low stress and high happiness (Wang et al., 2016). A study by Sahdra and Shaver (2013) considered that non-attachment had a negative correlation with anxiety attachment, and that non-attachment can predict close-mindedness. Furthermore, non-attachment and compassion could predict prosocial behaviours in adolescent men and women.
According to Shonin et al. (2014), practicing mindfulness has been developed into Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy, which has been applied by both the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, and by the American Psychiatry Association for treating depression. Furthermore, using meditation in treating disorders relating to stress, anxiety, and panic is reported to be effective (Kabat-Zinn et al., 1992). In recent years, the application of Buddhism to psychological health care has increased at a rapid rate. To be more specific, in 2012, there were approximately 500 scientific articles concerning the principles and practices of Buddhism, such as mindfulness, non-self, non-attachment, and compassion; between 2002 and 2012, only 50 articles on similar subjects were published (Shonin et al., 2014). In addition to meditation and mindfulness, other teachings of Buddhism, such as compassion, loving kindness, and non-self, are being applied in interventions for psychological disorders such as affective disorders, addiction and substance abuse, and schizophrenia (Shonin et al., 2014). Research also shows that this therapeutic approach is effective with diverse disorders, including chronic pain, stress, body dysmorphic disorder, anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, insomnia, eating disorders, personality disorders, and borderline disorder (Lee & Geffen, 2008; Murphy & Donovan, 1997; Walsh, 2008). Meditation, mindfulness, non-attachment, and compassion play important roles in different aspects of mental health (Fletcher, Schoendorff, & Hayes, 2010; Hayes, 2002; Neff, 2003a; Neff, 2003b; Sahdra et al., 2010). Non-attachment, in particular, helps people avoid suffering and enhance their perception, metacognition, and psychological flexibility (Wendling, 2012).
The following definition of terms will prove useful for readers unfamiliar with the concepts related to the premise of this study.
Non-attachment
Buddhism is considered to be a philosophical, psychological, ethical, and cultural system that offers varied solutions to human suffering (Kelly, 2008). Buddhism also offers many different practices to reduce suffering, to cultivate peace and happiness, and to finally be free of suffering.
One of the basic teachings in Buddhism that addresses suffering, or
Shonin and colleagues (2014) defined attachment as ‘over-allocation of cognitive and emotional resources toward a particular object, construct, or idea to the extent that the object is assigned an attractive quality that is unrealistic and that exceeds its intrinsic worth’ (p. 126). According to Sahdra et al. (2010), a Buddhist approach to attachment implies possessiveness, jealousy, preoccupation, clinging, defensiveness, compulsion, obsession, acquisitiveness, defensive avoidance, competitiveness, and anxiety concerning gaining, escaping, or being able to avoid. Thus, non-attachment is a mental fixation ‘based on insight into the constructed and impermanent nature of mental representations’ (Sahdra et al., 2010, p. 116). We define non-attachment as being aware of the impermanence of things, leading to independence from both external factors, such as materials, relationships, and sensations, and internal factors, such as desires, feelings, and ego, allowing one to be free and able to create happiness.
Mental Health
We use the term ‘mental health’ to implicitly address three types of disorders: stress, anxiety, and depression.
Problem Statement
Several empirical studies have indicated a negative association between non-attachment and poor mental health; however, such research is nearly non-existent in Vietnam, a country with a long Buddhist tradition. The previous research discussed above suggests that we should conduct a study concerning the relationship between non-attachment and mental health in Vietnamese Buddhists.
Research Questions
Q1. What is the relationship between non-attachment and mental health (stress, anxiety, and depression) in Buddhists?
Q2. Are there differences in the relationship between non-attachment and mental health given different demographical variables?
Q3. Are there differences in the relationship between non-attachment and mental health given different religious variables?
Q4. Among the demographic and religious variables, what is the most influential variable affecting the non-attachment and mental health of Buddhists?
Purpose of the Study
The purposes of the study are to examine the relationships between non-attachment in Buddhism and several mental health components (stress, anxiety, and depression), and to explore demographic and religious variables to determine the most influential variable affecting the non-attachment and mental health of Buddhists.
Research Methods
Participants and Procedure
The study was conducted from April 2015 to July 2016, advancing through the following stages: a) researching theory and designing methods and research tools; b) conducting a pilot study, analysing data, and adjusting research tools; c) conducting the study; and d) analysing data and writing a report.
Participants included in this study were Buddhist followers who practiced Buddhism on a regular basis, listened to dharma talks directly or via social media, visited Buddhist temples and engaged in Buddhist ceremonies, and possessed a basic understanding of Buddhist teachings. Participants completed our survey at Buddhist temples under the guidance of the researchers.
Participants were collected from four
Participants were informed of research goals and approximate survey time (about 30 minutes), were assured of confidentiality, and provided their informed consent. We did not ask participants to provide their names on the survey. Consenting participants were guided through completing the survey and providing answers for any question.
The pilot study was conducted on 53 participants in December 2015 and some items, due to mistakes in translation, were modified according to feedback from participants. The study was then conducted on 500 participants, of whom 472 completed the survey. Ages of participants ranged from 12 to 71 (mean age = 33.7 years).
Measures
Non-attachment Scale (NAS)
The NAS is a Likert-type scale that includes 30 items with ratings that range from 1 (‘disagree completely’) to 6 (‘agree completely’); high scores indicate a greater level of non-attachment (Sahdra et al., 2010). Example items include ‘I find I can be calm and/or happy even if things are not going my way’, ‘I can enjoy pleasant experiences without needing them to last forever’, and ‘I can see my own problems and shortcomings without trying to blame them on someone or something outside myself’. Participants were asked to read each item carefully and to decide how much they agreed with the item.
Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-42)
The DASS-42 includes three sub-scales, each with 14 items representing 14 symptoms of mental health, which can relate to either stress, anxiety, or depression (Bilgel, & Bayram, 2010; Crawford & Henry, 2003; Lovibond, & Lovibond, 1995). Example items include ‘I tended to over-react to situations’, ‘I felt scared without any good reason’, and ‘I felt that I had nothing to look forward to’. Participants were asked to read each item carefully and to indicate their experience with symptoms over the last week, using a scale ranging from 1 (‘Did not apply to me at all’) to 4 (‘Applied to me very much’), with high scores indicating more frequent symptoms.
Table
Demographic questionnaire
The questionnaire consisted of two parts: demographic variables and religious, or Buddhist, variables. The former included gender, age,
Data were analysed using the SPSS program version 22.0 and analyses included mean, standard deviation,
Findings
Data concerning demographic and Buddhist variables are described in Tables
There were 45 monks and 427 laypeople, of whom 58.5% had not taken refuge in the Three Jewels and 41.5% had, for a period of 1 to 22 years. Participants practiced Buddhism in temple (44.1%), at home (43.7%), and other places (12.2%). The number of participants who practiced alone, with family members, with friends, or with
Relationship between non-attachment and mental health of Buddhists
Results showed that the entire sample of participants had a non-attachment mean of 4.37 (
The DASS mean obtained was .72 (
There were negative correlations between non-attachment scores and total mental health scores (
Results also showed that no participant had stress, anxiety, or depression scores that exceeded the cut-off point for ‘normal’ scores (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), indicating that all participants were mentally healthy. The following analysis therefore only addressed the influence of demographical and religious variables on Buddhists, without analysing the influences of the stress, anxiety, and depression variables.
Relationships between demographic variables and non-attachment
The relationships between demographic variables and non-attachment are described in Table
Gender
An independent samples
Age
One-way ANOVA analysis did not yield any significant effect of age on non-attachment scores (
Sangha
One-way ANOVA analyses showed that there was a significant effect of
Marital status
One-way ANOVA analyses showed that there was a significant effect of marital status on non-attachment scores (Table
Occupation
One-way ANOVA analyses showed that there was a significant effect of occupation on non-attachment scores (Table
Monks had higher non-attachment scores than did students, the self-employed, housewives/househusbands, businessmen, government officials, teachers, researchers, and others (Table
Income
One-way ANOVA analyses showed that there was a significant effect of income on non-attachment scores (Table
Relationship between Buddhist variables and non-attachment
The relationships between Buddhist variables and non-attachment are described in Table
Buddhist status
Independent samples
Time since first taking refuge in the Three Jewels
In contrast to our expectations, the analysis showed that there was no significant effect of time since first taking refuge on non-attachment scores (Table
Venue when practicing dharma
Although participants practiced in the four
Fellow practitioners
One-way ANOVA analyses showed that non-attachment scores were related to the fellow practitioners (Table
Frequency of practicing dharma
Practicing Buddhism includes a wide range of actions such as meditation, chanting, praying, and donating. One-way ANOVA analyses showed that there was a significant effect of frequency of practice on non-attachment (Table
Belief in dharma
One-way ANOVA analyses showed that there was a significant effect of degree of belief in dharma on non-attachment scores,
Change of mind since practicing dharma
Result showed that 46.3% of Buddhists indicated that they had changed very positively since practicing dharma, 46.7% reported that they had changed positively, 5.5% had not changed at all, and 1.5% said they had changed negatively. One-way ANOVA analyses showed that people who thought that they had changed very positively scored significantly higher on the NAS than did those who indicated they had changed positively (
Correlations among main variables, non-attachment, and mental health
Pearson’s correlation analysis showed that there were moderate correlations between the frequency of practicing dharma and belief in dharma, between the frequency of practicing dharma and the change of mind since practicing dharma, and between belief in dharma and the change of mind since practicing dharma (Table
**p < .01.
Factors predicting Buddhist non-attachment and mental health
A multivariate regression model for predicting the influence of main Buddhist variables on non-attachment and mental health is presented in Table
A group of three factors was a significant predictor for Buddhists’ non-attachment (
A multivariate regression model showed that a group of three factors was a significant predictor for Buddhists’ mental health (
Furthermore, regression analysis showed that non-attachment was a significant predictor of stress (
In summary, frequency of practicing dharma and change of mind since practicing dharma were significant predictors of the non-attachment and mental health of our Buddhist sample. Non-attachment could also predict the reduction of stress, anxiety, and depression.
Conclusion
General discussion
First; female participants had higher non-attachment than did male participants. Wang et al. (2016) also showed that women scored significantly higher than did men on four aspects: relationship harmony, dialectical adaptation, life satisfaction, and happiness. Non-attachment had significant and positive correlations with self-esteem, life satisfaction, positive emotion, peaceful mind, and happiness, and negative correlations with negative emotions and stress. Research concerning gender identity has illustrated some characteristics relating to self and attachment. For example, Bem (1974) associated a masculine sex-role identity with the tendency to act as a leader and a feminine sex-role orientation with sensitivity to the needs of others. Hofstede (2001) described masculinity as ego-oriented, focused on money, and living to work, in contrast to femininity being relationship-oriented, focused on quality of life, and working to live. Masculinity therefore tends to be associated with possessions, conquering success, and enhancing ego, which represents clinging to external pleasure. Perhaps these cultural characteristics make it more difficult for men to become more non-attached.
Second, participants from
Third, monks scored significantly higher on the NAS than did those who were unmarried without a boyfriend/girlfriend, those who were unmarried with a boyfriend/girlfriend, those who were married, and those who were divorced, separated, or bereaved. These differences again suggest that family members can also be objects of unhealthy attachment. It is also intuitive to think that possessions can be clung to. Although monks, farmers, workers, and retirees, who are usually the poorest in Vietnamese society, had the top scores on the NAS, the results did not find any correlation between income and non-attachment. More research is therefore needed to understand what factors may influence high non-attachment in farmers and workers in comparison with people who work in other fields.
Fourth, monks and people who had taken refuge in the Three Jewels had greater non-attachment than did lay people and those who had not taken refuge in the Three Jewels. People who practiced with a
It is therefore understandable that people who practiced Buddhism regularly attained greater non-attachment in comparison with those who practiced less frequently. Chanting, meditating, and practicing mindfulness are all common practices in Buddhism. Following these practices regularly helps Buddhists to experience spirituality, increase their belief and religious commitment, and transform themselves to suffer less and become freer. Our analysis agreed with this observation, as participants who believed completely in Buddhism showed the greatest non-attachment. Similarly, participants who related a positive change of mind showed greater non-attachment.
Fifth, results showed that no participant had suffered stress, anxiety, and depression, whereas other social groups such as students have been found to score significantly higher on the same DASS scale (Le, 2011; Nguyen P., 2009; Tran, 2012). Research employing other scales has also reported high levels of stress, anxiety, and depression (Le, 2009; Nguyen T., 2009; Nguyen, 2014; Pham, 2007). It has been shown that the mental health of Buddhists is extraordinary, which has never been reported for any other research sample in Vietnam.
Sixth, the negative correlation in this sample between non-attachment and mental health disorders is consistent with other research (Burns et al., 2011; Coffey & Hartman, 2008; Dane, 2000; Sahdra et al., 2010; Sahdra & Shaver, 2013; Sahdra, Ciarrochi, Parker, Marshall, & Heaven, 2015; Sooksawat et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016). This means that greater non-attachment is related to lower stress, anxiety, and depression; in this way, non-attachment can be a predictor of mental health.
Seventh, our research yielded some interesting results that are difficult to explain. Particularly, there was no significant difference between people who did not believe in Buddhism and those who believed completely. Similarly, there was no significant difference in non-attachment scores between people who changed negatively and those who changed positively. This might be due to the small sample size and could be investigated closely in future research.
Last, results showed that although frequency of practicing dharma and change of mind since practicing dharma could explain variance in non-attachment and mental health in Buddhists, belief in dharma did not influence non-attachment or mental health. This implies that practicing Buddhism, not merely believing, can help people change, transform, and cultivate good mental health, which suggests a potential beneficial application of practicing Buddhism as psychological treatment for stress, anxiety, and depression.
Additionally, we think that in order to understand the characteristics and mechanisms of non-attachment, it is necessary to develop a multi-factor scale for non-attachment. The scale can consist of two main sub-scales, external non-attachment and internal non-attachment. External non-attachment may measure materials, relationships, success, and sensations, whereas internal non-attachment may measure ideas, thoughts, feelings, desires, and self-non-attachment.
Implications
The current study answered our research questions and showed some interesting results. Results showed that practicing Buddhism in general and non-attachment in particular is a good way for individuals to become less attached to what they had or thought they had, improving their mental health. Practicing Buddhism was strongly related with religious commitment, through ordination or taking refuge in the Three Jewels, all of which help individuals strengthen their beliefs in Buddhism and non-attachment, allowing them to become more free and happier regardless of external conditions. Results also suggest the need for future research concerning applying the practice of non-attachment to the improvement of mental health for those who are diagnosed with psychological disorders. Future research may develop a multi-factor scale to measure non-attachment and study the relationship between religious orientation and non-attachment, as well as between religious orientation and mental health, in Buddhists.
Acknowledgments
We thank Professor Marti Hope Gonzales (University of Minnesota) for comments that greatly improved the manuscript.
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Nguyen, H. N. T., Dang, N. H., & Nguyen, H. V. (2017). The Relationship Between Non-Attachment And Mental Health Among Vietnamese Buddhists. In Z. Bekirogullari, M. Y. Minas, & R. X. Thambusamy (Eds.), Health and Health Psychology - icH&Hpsy 2017, vol 30. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 179-197). Future Academy. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2017.09.17