Study |
Year |
Number of factors |
Factor structure |
Sample size(N) |
Sample characteristics (Age and grade level) |
Language |
1.Stanovich, Cunningham, & Cramer |
1984 |
1 |
- |
49 |
Mage = 6 yrs. and 2 mths. (SD=4.4 mths)Kindergarten |
English |
2.Lundberg, Frost, & Petersen |
1988 |
2 |
Word and syllable awareness and phoneme awareness |
235 (EG)155 (CG) |
Mage= 6 yrs. oldKindergarten |
Danish |
3.Yopp |
1988 |
2 |
Phonemic awareness and deletion |
96 |
Mage= 5 yrs. and 10 mths.Kindergarten |
English |
4. Wagner, Torgesen, Laughon, Simmons, & Rashotte |
1993 |
2 |
Analytical and synthetic factor for both kindergarten and second grade samples |
95 (k)89 (2nd) |
Mage= 5 yrs. and 11 mths. (k)Mage= 8 yrs. and 1 mth.Kindergarten and 2nd grade |
English |
5. Stahl & Murray |
1994 |
1 |
- |
11352 (k)61 (1st) |
Kindergarten and 1st grade |
English |
6. Carrillo |
1994 |
2 |
Sensitivity to phonological similarities and segmental awareness/ holistic and analytic awareness |
12068 (k)52 (1st) |
Mage= 5 yrs. and 10 mths. (k)Mage= 6 yrs. and 10 mths. (1st grade)Kindergarten and 1st grade |
Spanish |
7. Høien,Lundberg, Stanovich, & Bjaalid |
1995 |
3 |
Phoneme factor, syllable factor and a rhyme factor |
128 (Study1)1509 (Study 2) |
Age range (k)= 6 yrs. and 5 mths. to 7 yrs. and 5 mths.)Age range (1st) = 7 yrs. and 4 mths. to 8 yrs. and 4 mths.Kindergarten and 1st grade |
Norwegian |
8.Muter, Hulme, Snowling, & Taylor |
1997 |
2 |
Rhyme and segmentation |
38 |
Age range= 3 yrs. to 4 yrs. and 9 mths.Preschool |
English |
9. Lonigan, Burgess, Anthony, & Barker |
1998 |
2 (3- and 4-year-olds)1 (5-year-olds) |
*Oddity Tasks and Non-oddity Tasks |
238 |
Age range= 2 yrs. and 1 mth. and 6 yrs. and 10 mths.Mage= 50.4 mths.)Preschool |
English |
10.Schatschneider, Francis, Foorman, Fletcher, & Mehta |
1999 |
1 |
- |
945(315/grade) |
Mean age:Mage= 5 yrs. and 8 mths. (k)Mage= 6 yrs. and 9 mths. (1st)Mage= 8 yrs. (2nd)Kindergarten to Second Grade |
English |
11. de Jong & der Leij |
1999 |
1 |
- |
166 |
Mage = 5 yrs. and 7 mths. (SD= 2,7 mths.)Second year of kindergarten |
Dutch |
12.Anthony, Lonigan, Burgess, Driscoll, Phillips, & Cantor |
2002 |
1 for both age groups |
- |
258 |
Mage = 39.43mths. (N=109)Mage = 56. 55mths. (N= 149)Preschool |
English |
13.Van Bon & van Leeuwe |
2003 |
1 |
- |
171 |
Mage =74 mths. (k)Mage =84 mths. (1st) |
Dutch |
14. Runge & Watkins |
2006 |
2 |
Phonological awareness and one for rhyme |
161 |
Mage = 75.5 mths.Kindergarten |
English |
15.Vloedgraven and Verhoeven |
2007 |
1 |
- |
172 (k)173 (1st) |
Mage = 6 yrs. and 1 mth. (k)Mage =7 yrs. and 1 mth. (1st) |
Dutch |
16. Papadopoulos, Spanoudis, & Kendeou |
2009 |
1 |
- |
280 |
Mage = 5 yrs. and 8 mths. (first testing) (k)Mage =6 yrs. and 6 mths. (Second testing) (1st grade) |
Greek |
17. Mott & Rutherford |
2012 |
1 |
- |
333 |
Pre-K, K, and Grades 1 and 2 |
English |
18. Godoy & Cogo-Moreira |
2015 |
3 |
segmentation, CVC deletion, CCV deletion |
176 |
Mage= 9.3 yrs.1st through 5th grade |
Brazilian Portuguese |
19. Wolff & Gustafsson* |
2015 |
- |
a general phonological awareness factor and 4 residual factors representing the processing and linguistic complexity factors |
364 |
Mage= 4 yrs. and 1 mth.Preschool |
Swedish |
20. Santos & Lima |
2017 |
3 |
Factors relating to sound position (initial, median, final) |
510 |
Mage= 8.4 yrs2nd and 6th grade students |
Brazilian Portuguese |
21. Germano, de C. Cesar, & Capellini |
2017 |
2 |
The PA measures loaded on two factors: measures of rhyme, alliteration, and letter naming; separately measures of phoneme analysis and synthesis |
149 |
Age range= 6yrs.- 6 yrs. and 11 mths.1st grade |
Brazilian Portuguese |
22. Meira, Cadime, & Viana |
2018 |
3 |
syllable, rhyme and phonemic awareness |
256 |
Mage=66.37 mths.Last year of preschool* |
Portuguese |
23. Milankov, Golubović, Krstić, & Golubović |
2021 |
4 |
stylistic awareness (syllable), advanced awareness, initial phoneme awareness, phoneme segmentation |
689 |
Mage=101.59 mths.Grade 1 through Grade 3 |
Serbian |